Effect of Migration on Development of Northern Ghana

Effect of Migration on Develop handst of northerly gold coastMigration has been an age-long employ handst which has been going on in different forms and continues to be a critical component of individual and societal developing through acquisition and transferral of know directge and resources. Migration is a global phenomenon which continues to dominate the scenes around the universe of discourse, while around form of migration is been promoted for economic reasons, otherwise forms face strict restrictions. Migratory try within and beyond portional boundaries crossways has been produced through globalisation and advancement in modern technology (Koser, K 2008).In gold coast migration is a common activity through unwrap all the partings, tribes and family with al about e actually(prenominal) single family having either an international migrator or internal migrant.This stamp reflects in the Northern region of Ghana in a very alarming manner with m whatever new-fa ngled and able bodies migrating to prominent cities in much(prenominal) of improved sustenance.Background of the study argona.Northern region of Ghana lies in the midst of the two upper regions and the Brong Ahafo region and Volta region. It has Ta manlike as the regional chapiter with eighteen districts assemblies. The region is characterized by one rainy gentle with an annual rainfall of virtually 750 to 1050mm. The rainy season starts around May through to October and the dry season from November to April. The climatic conditions and vegetation type ar classified ad under dry savanna, the regions environmental conditions are highly influenced by its propinquity to the Sahara desert which account for the poor soil type dry survive condition.The economic activity which is predominant in the region is Agriculture it employs to the highest degree eighty percent of the commonwealth in the region. With one briny estate season, as agriculture in Ghana largely depends on rai nfall patterns, the region relies on its rain season for cultivation. The main crops grown in the region such as maize, millet, cowpeas, groundnut, sorghum, cassava, rice and yam are civilized on subsistence bases. They mostly make use of jade intensive methods of earth with the simpleton farm tools and implement.The region has been behind its secondern peers in terms of exploitation for far too long. It is also viewed deprived with limited natural resources to furnish its exploitation process. The south can boast of coastal resource, good soil, with abounding mineral and forest resources that accounts for the attractiveness to colonial masters accordingly and investors now. thus developments in modern infrastructure and economic activities thrust been centrally cerebrate in the south which whitethorn be attri howevered to the frequent out migration from the Northern region to no other finis but to the southThe region has historically been faced with out migration, si nce the pre-colonial era. From the colonial era the north served as labour pool where the needed labour storm were fished out to function the highly labour demanding south, in the mining and the cocoa industry. Males dominated migration accordingly due to the physical demands of the job on the mines and farmers were mostly unskilled. Females were not of substance in terms numbers, those who migrated were mostly accompanying spouses or those migrating to reunite with spouses. minimum womanish out migration from the north can also be attributed to the sociable-cultural agents such as marriage and family served as barrier in the past to pistillate movement life was viewed to be mostly around family and marriage. Males were regarded as bushel bread winners of the family and females or women as dependents.However, recent trend of out migration bespeak more of younger females unlike in the past were female migration was unremarkably for the purpose family reunion it has been dom inated by independently migrated young females. The female numbers from the north has been increasing dramatically and has taken centre stage of recent research into internal migration. Both males and females move to the cities, mostly without any special skills and overwork menial jobs as head porters, the males use quartette wheeled trucks in their work (Hashim, 2007).PROBLEM STATEMENTInternal migration in Ghana has become a means of harmonizing ethnic balances through interaction, join forces work and inter-marriages. Migration from regions and districts seen as naturally, economically and socially deprived or insufficient in terms of economic activities and basic social amenities to other regions and cities perceived as economically and socially endowed continues all division round in Ghana. Although these forms of movement to other highly rated regions to seek groping bright future cut across all regions in Ghana, but anyone may come to conclude that the northern region s eems to have a very significant rate of migration ( Boakye-Yiadom and MacKay, 2007). The Northern region of Ghana has seen a massive exodus of youth into other regions for various reasons over the years. In recent years a new trend that has emerged involve young males and females who migrate to the cities of Accra and Kumasi in particular. Notable among these migrants are females who work as head porters. These females face umteen challenges daily, exploited and live in ugly conditions on the streets and slums of Accra and Kumasi. Their male counterparts are not exception as they face similar stake.This case study seeks to examinei. the various propel factors behind this migration trend.ii. the short and long-term effects migration on Northern Ghanas development.lit ReviewMigration and developmentDevelopment is wide and dynamic concept with different views and assumptions. The concept has been variously defined based on the discourse. Development is seen to be a process aimed a t achieving specific targeted goals (Kingsbury, D. et al. 2004).It can be explained as a progressive socioeconomic process for empowering the poor to improve their livelihood(Sen, 1988). It is seen as a process which runs parallel to growth or improved situation livelihood.MigrationMigration is defined broadly as a permanent or short change of residence.No restriction is placed upon the distance of the move or upon the voluntary or involuntary constitution of the act, and no distinction is do in the midst of external and internal migration.(Lee E.S, 1966)Gender and migrationGender represents socially constructed male and feminine while sex is the biological determined categories of male and female. It then explains that ones sex is determined at conception but an individual sex identity develops over a life course and can hesitate across a wide continuum of masculine and feminine characteristics. Nicholson (1995 in McDo rise up 199913), the differences between the two terms s ex and gender sex is the biological differences between a man and a woman and gender describes the socially constructed characteristics of men and women. It is further explained that gender is the social organisation of versed difference. It then follows that gender is the knowledge that establishes meaning for bodily differences.According to Moore (1988 in McDowell 19997) in analyzing what is to be -a woman and the cultural attending of the category, -woman vary through space and clock and how those understandings relate to the bunk of women in different societies. To understand this we need to understand the concept of gender and gender relations that is -the different ways in which women and men and the accepted attributes of femininity and masculinity which are defined across space and sentence (ibid). She argues that gender is then seen from two perspectives either as a symbolic construction or as a social relationship.Gender as a social relation and gender as a symbolic meaning are interconnected and mutually constitute (McDowell 19997). We all act in relation to our intentions and beliefs which are always culturally shaped and historically and spatially positioned. The appropriate behaviour and actions by women and men reflect and affect what they imagine a man or a woman to be, as well as women and men who are tell apart with age, class, race or sexuality, and these expected behaviour and beliefs change over time and between places (ibid). Gender eccentric constraints is underpinned by the social expectation that womens main activities should be close to family care and plate maintenance and the assumption that women bequeath interrupt their working lives to care for children and antique sexual intercourses (Tivers 1977 in Jenkins 20058). How has these gender voice constraints affected married women with children who have left the home to migrate to a new environment to work in the informal economy to set up for the household.The Gender and Migration LinkagePrior to the mid 1980s, migration was regarded as a male phenomenon (Sjaastad, 1962 Lee, 1969 Todaro, 1977 Lipton, 1980). Authors such as Stouffer (1976) and Oberai, (1983) assert that until most recently, the physical movement of the great unwashed from one place to another for physical exertion was predominantly undertaken by men. The Todaro (1969) and Harris-Todaro (1970) models, which are some of the earliest models of migration, also emphasize that internal migration occurs in a dual economy, in which the urban sector draws male labour force from the agribusiness(a) sector. Meanwhile, other aspects of rural-urban linkages such as the gendered traditional division of labour and farm and non-farm employment have often been overlooked (Roca, 1994102).Migration was being seen by some researchers and scholars as gender-neutral because it deals with the process of movement of persons (Anarfi, 1982 Sabot, 1988).13 Meanwhile, migration is actually gender-struct ured because men and women migrate for different reasons, use different channels and most importantly, migration has different consequences for men and women in twain imparting and receiving communities (Chant Radcliffe, 1992 Silberschmidt, 1999 Potts, 2000). For those leaving, internal migration can result in either empowerment or, on the contrary, cast upd vulnerability and even exploitation (FAO/UNFPA, 199123). Likewise, for those remaining, the departure of men and/or women from the household go away have a specific influence depending on the migrants spot and role within the household prior to migrating, such as being main wage earner, spouse, elevate or young daughter or son (Fadoyomi, 1980).For a rural farming household, in particular, the consequences of migration depends on the socio-cultural and economic context, gender and age of migrant, position of migrant within the household, the agro-ecological environment, the type of migratory movement, whether it is tempor ary or permanent, and the employment possibilities and self-sufficiency of migrant, and the ability to send adequate remittances to maintain the direct of farming prior to migration (Andersson, 200278-79). One of the major implications of rural-urban migration is that it is the most able-bodied, relatively young and educate persons that migrate from rural to urban surface playing fields. This process, therefore, leaves behind rural communities composed of women, children, the elderly and uneducated, who are faced with the tremendous challenge of sustaining their household livelihood and the rural economy effectively (Findlay Williams, 199065 Anh, 200379). 14The predominantly male transportation from rural areas may also bring about changes in the agricultural gender division of labour, as the migration process will invariably increase womens workload on the farm, thereby resulting in the feminization ofagriculture (FAO, 1995 Deshingkar Start, 200399).15 The exile of menDiscu ssionInternal migration within Ghana from north to the south has had a long history. Although all forms of migration takes place for specific reasons based on the experience of people from their places origin. There has been several debate on reasons the northern region is lagging behind in development, some attribute it governments neglect, contravene and unwillingness of investors to establish in the northern. All but one involvement is has to be looked into critically is migration. The impacts of out migration from the northern region on both young males and females migrant as well as the northern region may reflect in the long term.For any region or place to develop, it will depend on how efficient the resources available to the area will be utilized. It may involve the assessment of disparities or minding the portas in development between the sending and receiving areas of migrants. Gaps in preceptal level among the regions will likely determine the sector of the economy tha t could absorb the migrant. Poverty level in the north influence the trend of migration to other cities as has been estimated to have over two thirds of the population living below the poverty line. dissimilar reasons that establish relationship between North- south migration and development in the northern region or the northern sector and the southern sector of Ghana, points to the development policy and plan during the colonial era.Although migration of migration is not only a job with the northern region but most parts of the country, both males and females migrate internally and internationally.Out-Migration in other southern regions mostly differs in patterns and benefits. The north-south trend is characterize by young males and females ranging from ages thirteen and above to about 45 year. Between ages 13-25 form the core of the migrant, who are either school day drop-out or without any special trade. Over ninety percent are engaged as head porters (Kayayoo) or truck pusher s. Their job involves draw goods from the market that has been purchased by patrons to their preferred destination around the market area. Income from their activities is so minimal to even fully expect them to maintain good banal of living.This forces some of the female migrant to resort to prostitution to again purposeless more income in order to survive. The males sometime join gangs to legion(predicate) migrant females are relegated to prostitution in destination areas because oftheir deprivation of employable skills or due to gender discriminations of employment.Some have had to offer sex in exchange for jobs, food, shelter and protection, leaving themprone to sexually transmitted diseases. many a(prenominal) young females who migrate from the Northernand Upper regions of Ghana to the capital Accra, to work as head porters (Kayayei) live on thestreets. They are exposed to the vagaries of the weather condition and face constant risks of sexual assault,theft of their meage r earnings and rape. Many are forced into prostitution as a means of natural selection(Apt, 1998). Besides the combination of low wages and the need to save and send home asmuch money as possible leaves relegates many female migrants to a low quality of life wheretheir own in the flesh(predicate) needs and health may be neglected. It is estimated that about 45-55% ofrefugee populations across the world are women. Many of these women refugees are exposedto gender based sexual violence. They are victims of rape, forced impregnation and abortions,sexual slavery and intentional spreading of STIs including HIV/AIDS (UNFPA, 2004Motivations for migrationA research by Ghana statistical service estimated that about 80% of the combined Northern Ghana population are living in poverty (Ghana Statistical Service, 2007). Therefore the appraisal to migrate by a family member is relief to the family. Moreover, the declining soil fertility, deficiency of access to arable agricultural land and t he single farming season has also been a contributory factor. Again the peasant nature of farming means low dispensable income for families.The Increasing economic and infrastructure gap between the north and the south, increasing economic activities in the receiving cities is seen a factor for both male and female migration from the Northern region. Resource deficit and lack of income generation activities to support themselves and their relatives has partly influenced the migration (Anarfi and Kwankye, 2005). Movement from the north to the south to principally cities of Accra and Kumasi may be due to the fact they have comprehend of these as the surest place to make it in life. The urge to diversify livelihood options as the region has fewer opportunities to offer the regard migration as an resource source of livelihood. (Anarfi and Kwankye, 2005).Network of friends and relative, serve to link friends and relatives with jobs and assist them with all the nurture needed to estab lish them in the new location.Intermittent ethnic conflicts in the Northern region have forced people to migrate out of northern region to the south where the peace prevails with improved infrastructure for instants in 1994 the Kokomba conflict causes of people to move south wards. Those who migrated were mostly women and children when men were actively engaged in the conflict.Impacts of migrationRemittances from migrant serves as an alternative source of income to families of migrant (Quartey,2006). Unlike international migrants, whose remittance form the bulk of family source of income and may also go into investment in business, housing project to call forth but a few, remittances from internal migrants are usually for domestic support of parent healthcare, daily upkeep or childcare. The transfer channels use for transferring monies to family are usually informal through networks again, when a friend or relative is returning home.Migration changes hands in gender roles with trad itional role of women in childcare where women with children leave them in the care of men, parents or relative (Oppong, 1997). Most often the children lack proper upbringing and care when the bewilder or both parent have migrated out. This usually affects child education and may be neglected when the parent fail to send in money to support the family (Parrenas, 2001)Migration may lead to lose of vibrant copious labour force that families and communities need most for production in the agricultural, swap and other labour intensive jobs. Thus lose of youthful section to development. (Awumbila ArdayfioSchandorf , 2008)Challenges of migrationMigrants to the cities of Accra and Kumasi face lots of challenges but females are the most insecureworld only a minority of women are granted refugee status (UNFPA, 2004). This is becausegender related causes of persecution are rarely accepted as sound grounds for refugee status. Alsowomen usually lack the literacy or educational poking to complete the usually bureaucraticapplication process. (Caritas Europa, 2007). The participation of females in migration has led toMigration in Ghana Thematic Paper 2009 22the development of a labour niche for females ( domestic work, childcare etc) characterized bylow wages, foul labor practices and exploitation and exclusion of females form certain kinds ofwork-often of the formal nature (Oppong, 1997).Poor Quality of LifeMigrants, especially females tend to be the most vulnerable and they face many challenges andtend to live under deprived conditions often times without access to social services in destinationcommunities.ConclusionBased on gender analysis and differences as well as diversity in family and economic status of males and females migrate may have similar motivation for migration but may have difference in the experiences.The region is losing valuable ingredient that needs to be restructured to enhance the development process in the Northern region. New interventions in the area of capacity building for the youth to improve the quality of life in the region needs be on the plan, and well executed. Educational campaigns on challenges migrants go through and the need to will help in the development process of the region may help reduce or understructure the trend in the bud.Credit accessibility and at an affordable involvement to assist farmer and others in private ventures could maintain the population flow. meliorate infrastructure, terms of health facilities, roads, schools, potable water will help dyad the gaps in development that attracts the youth.Therefore the region may develop other gender related programs to help the youth and the region as a whole